British Airways Essay Example for Free

British Airways Essay I remember going to parties in the late 1970s, and, if you wanted to have a civilized conversation, you didnt actually say that you worked for British Airways, because it got you talking about peoples last travel experience, which was usually an unpleasant one. Its staggering how much the airlines image has changed since then, and, in comparison, how proud staff are of working for BA today. British Airways employee, Spring 1990 I recently flew business class on British Airways for the first time in about 10 years. What has happened over that time is amazing. I cant tell you how my memory of British Airways as a company and the experience I had 10 years ago contrasts with today. The improvement in service is truly remarkable. British Airways customer, Fall 1989 In June of 1990, British Airways reported its third consecutive year of record profits,  £345 million before taxes, firmly establishing the rejuvenated carrier as one of the worlds most profitable airlines. The impressive financial results were one indication that BA had convincingly shed its historic â€Å"bloody awful† image. In October of 1989, one respected American publication referred to them as â€Å"bloody awesome,† a description most would not have thought possible after pre-tax losses totalling more than  £240 million in the years 1981 and 1982. Productivity had risen more than 67 percent over the course of the 1980s. Passengers reacted highly favorably to the changes. After suffering through years of poor market perception during the 1970s and before, BA garnered four Airline of the Year awards during the 1980s, as voted by the readers of First Executive Travel. In 1990, the leading American aviation magazine, Air Transport World, selected BA as the winner of its Passenger Service award. In the span of a decade, British Airways had radically improved its financial strength, convinced its work force of the paramount importance of customer service, and dramatically improved its perception in the market. Culminating in the privatization of 1987, the carrier had undergone fundamental change through a series of important messages and events. With unprecedented success under its belt, management faced an increasingly perplexing problem: how to maintain momentum and recapture the focus that would allow them to meet new challenges. Crisis of 1981 Record profits must have seemed distant in 1981. On September 10 of that year, then chief executive Roy Watts issued a special bulletin to British Airways staff: British Airways is facing the worst crisis in its history . . . unless we take swift and remedial action we are heading for a loss of at least  £100 million in the present financial year. We face the prospect that by next April we shall have piled up losses of close to  £250 million in two years. Even as I write to you, our money is draining at the rate of nearly  £200 a minute. No business can survive losses on this scale. Unless we take decisive action now, there is a real possibility that British Airways will go out of business for lack of money. We have to cut our costs sharply, and we have to cut them fast. We have no more choice, and no more time . Just two years earlier, an optimistic British government had announced its plan to privatize British Airways through a sale of shares to the investing public. Although airline management recognized that the 58,000 staff was too large, they expected increased passenger volumes and improved staff productivity to help them avoid complicated and costly employee reductions. While the 1978-79 plan forecasted passenger traffic growth at 8 to 10 percent, an unexpected recession left BA struggling to survive on volumes, which, instead, decreased by more that 4 percent. A diverse and aging fleet, increased fuel costs, and the high staffing costs forced the government and BA to put privatization on hold indefinitely. With the airline technically bankrupt, BA management and the government would have to wait before the public would be ready to embrace the ailing airline. The BA Culture, 1960-1980 British Airways stumbled into its 1979 state of inefficiency in large part because of its history and culture. In August 1971, the Civil Aviation Act became law, setting the stage for the British Airways Board to assume control of two state-run airlines, British European Airways (BEA) and British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC), under the name British Airways. In theory, the board was to control policy over British Airways; but, in practice, BEA and BOAC remained autonomous, each with its own chairman, board, and chief executive. In 1974, BOAC and BEA finally issued one consolidated financial report. In 1976, Sir Frank (later Lord) McFadzean replaced the group division with a structure based on functional divisions to officially integrate the divisions into one airline. Still, a distinct split within British Airways persisted throughout the 1970s and into the mid-1980s. After the Second World War, BEA helped pioneer European civil aviation. As a pioneer, it concerned itself more with building an airline infrastructure than it did with profit. As a 20-year veteran and company director noted: â€Å"The BEA culture was very much driven by building something that did not exist. They had built that in 15 years, up until 1960. Almost single-handedly they opened up air transport in Europe after the war. That had been about getting the thing established. The marketplace was taking care of itself. They wanted to get the network to work, to get stations opened up.† BOAC had also done its share of pioneering, making history on May 2, 1952, by sending its first jet airliner on a trip from London to Johannesburg, officially initiating jet passenger service. Such innovation was not without cost, however, and BOAC found itself mired in financial woes throughout the two decades following the war. As chairman Sir Matthew Slattery explained in 1962: â€Å"The Corporation has had to pay a heavy price for pioneering advanced technologies.† Success to most involved with BEA and BOAC in the 1950s and 1960s had less to do with net income and more to do with â€Å"flying the British flag.† Having inherited numerous war veterans, both airlines had been injected with a military mentality. These values combined with the years BEA and BOAC existed as government agencies to shape the way British Airways would view profit through the 1970s. As former director of human resources Nick Georgiades said of the military and civil service history: â€Å"Put those two together and you had an organization that believed its job was simply to get an aircraft into the air on time and to get it down on time.† While government support reinforced the operational culture, a deceiving string of profitable years in the 1970s made it even easier for British Airways to neglect its increasing inefficiencies. Between 1972 and 1980, BA earned a profit before interest and tax in each year except for one. â€Å"This was significant, not least because as long as the airline was returning profits, it was not easy to persuade the workforce, or the management for that matter, the fundamental changes were vital. Minimizing cost to the state became the standard by which BA measured itself. As one senior manager noted: â€Å"Productivity was not an issue. People were operating effectively, not necessarily efficiently. There were a lot of people doing other peoples jobs, and there were a lot of people checking on people doing other peoples jobs† . . . As a civil service agency, the airline was allowed to become inefficient because the thinking in state-run operations was, â€Å"If youre providing se rvice at no cost to the taxpayer, then youre doing quite well.† A lack of economies of scale and strong residual loyalties upon the merger further complicated the historical disregard for efficiency by BEA and BOAC. Until Sir Frank McFadzeans reorganization in 1976, British Airways had labored under several separate organizations (BOAC; BEA European, Regional, Scottish, and Channel) so the desired benefits of consolidation had been squandered. Despite operating under the same banner, the organization consisted more or less of separate airlines carrying the associated costs of such a structure. Even after the reorganization, divisional loyalties prevented the carrier from attaining a common focus. â€Å"The 1974 amalgamation of BOAC with the domestic and European divisions of BEA had produced a hybrid racked with management demarcation squabbles. The competitive advantages sought through the merger had been hopelessly defeated by the lack of a unifying corporate culture.† A BA director summed up how distracting the merger proved: â€Å"There wasnt enough management time devoted to managing the changing environment because it was all focused inwardly on resolving industrial relations problems, on resolving organizational conflicts. How do you bring these very, very different cultures together?† Productivity at BA in the 1970s was strikingly bad, especially in contrast to other leading foreign airlines. BAs productivity for the three years ending March 31, 1974, 1975, and 1976 had never exceeded 59 percent of that of the average of the other eight foreign airline leaders. Service suffered as well. One human resources senior manager recalled the â€Å"awful† service during her early years in passenger services: â€Å"I remember 10 years ago standing at the gate handing out boxes of food to people as they got on the aircraft. Thats how we dealt with service.† With increasing competition and rising costs of labor in Britain in the late 1970s, the lack of productivity and poor service was becoming increasingly harmful. By the summer of 1979, the number of employees had climbed to a peak of 58,000. The problems became dangerous when Britains worst recession in 50 years reduced passenger numbers and raised fuel costs substantially. Lord King Takes the Reins Sir John (later Lord) King was appointed chairman in February of 1981, just a half-year before Roy Wattss unambiguously grim assessment of BAs financial state. King brought to British Airways a successful history of business ventures and strong ties to both the government and business communities. Despite having no formal engineering qualifications, King formed Ferrybridge Industries in 1945, a company which found an unexploited niche in the ball-bearing industry. Later renamed the Pollard Ball and Roller Bearing Company, Ltd., Kings company was highly successful until he sold it in 1969. In 1970, he joined Babcock International and as chairman led it through a successful restructuring during the 1970s. Kings connections were legendary. Hand-picked by Margaret Thatcher to run BA, Kings close friends included Lord Hanson of Hanson Trust and the Princess of Waless family. He also knew personally Presidents Reagan and Carter. Kings respect and connections proved helpful both in recruiti ng and in his dealings with the British government. One director spoke of the significance of Kings appointment: â€Å"British Airways needed a chairman who didnt need a job. We needed someone who could see that the only way to do this sort of thing was radically, and who would be aware enough of how you bring that about.† In his first annual report, King predicted hard times for the troubled carrier. â€Å"I would have been comforted by the thought that the worst was behind us. There is no certainty that this is so.† Upon Wattss announcement in September of 1981, he and King launched their Survival plan— â€Å"tough, unpalatable and immediate measures† to stem the spiraling losses and save the airline from bankruptcy. The radical steps included reducing staff numbers from 52,000 to 43,000, or 20 percent, in just nine months; freezing pay increases for a year; and closing 16 routes, eight on-line stations, and two engineering bases. It also dictated halting cargo-only services and selling the fleet, and inflicting massive cuts upon offices, administrative services, and staff clubs. In June of 1982, BA management appended the Survival plan to accommodate the reduction of another 7,000 staff, which would eventually bring the total employees down from about 42,000 to nearly 35,000. BA accomplished its reductions through voluntary measures, offering such generous severance that they ended up with more volunteers than necessary. In total, the airline dished out some  £150 million in severance pay. Between 1981 and 1983, BA reduced its staff by about a quarter. About the time of the Survival plan revision, King brought in Gordon Dunlop, a Scottish accountant described by one journalist as â€Å"imaginative, dynamic, and extremely hardworking,† euphemistically known on Fleet Street as â€Å"forceful,† and considered by King as simply â€Å"outstanding.† As CFO, Dunlops contribution to the recovery years was significant. When the results for the year ending March 31, 1982, were announced in October, he and the board ensured 1982 would be a watershed year in BAs turnaround. Using creative financing, Dunlop wrote down  £100 million for redundancy costs,  £208 million for the value of the fleet (which would ease depreciation in future years), even an additional  £98 million for the 7,000 redundancies which had yet to be effected. For the year, the loss before taxes amounted to  £114 million. After taxes and extraordinary items, it totalled a staggering  £545 million. Even King might have admitted that the worst was behind them after such a report. The chairman immediately turned his attention to changing the airlines image and further building his turnaround team. On September 13, 1982, King relieved Foote, Cone Belding of its 36-year-old advertising account with BA, replacing it with Saatchi Saatchi. One of the biggest account changes in British history, it was Kings way of making a clear statement that the BA direction had changed. In April of 1983, British Airways launched its â€Å"Manhattan Landing† campaign. King and his staff sent BA management personal invitations to gather employees and tune in to the inaugural six-minute commercial. Overseas, each BA office was sent a copy of the commercial on videocassette, and many held cocktail parties to celebrate the new thrust. â€Å"Manhattan Landing† dramatically portrayed the whole island of Manhattan being lifted from North America and whirled over the Atlantic before awestruck witnesses in the U.K. After the initial airing, a massive campaign was run with a 90-second version of the commercial. The ad marked the beginning of a broader campaign, â€Å"The Worlds Favourite Airline,† reflective of BAs status as carrier of the most passengers internationally. With the financial picture finally brightening, BA raised its advertising budget for 1983-84 to  £31 million, compared with  £19 million the previous year, signalling a clear commitment to changing the corporate image. Colin Marshall Becomes Chief Executive In the midst of the Saatchi Saatchi launch, King recruited Mr. (later Sir) Colin Marshall, who proved to be perhaps the single most important person in the changes at British Airways. Appointed chief executive in February 1983, Marshall brought to he airline a unique resume. He began his career as a management trainee with Hertz in the United States. After working his way up the Hertz hierarchy in North America, Marshall accepted a job in 1964 to run rival Aviss operations in Europe. By 1976, the British-born businessman had risen to chief executive of Avis. In 1981, he returned to the U.K. as deputy chief and board member of Sears Holdings. Fulfilling one of his ultimate career ambitions, he took over as chief executive of British Airways in early 1983. Although having no direct experience in airline management, Marshall brought with him two tremendous advantages. First, he understood customer service, and second, he had worked with a set of c ustomers quite similar to the airline travel segment during his car rental days. Marshall made customer service a personal crusade from the day he entered BA. One executive reported: â€Å"It was really Marshall focusing on nothing else. The one thing that had overriding attention the first three years he was here was customer service, customer service, customer service—nothing else. That was the only thing he was interested in, and its not an exaggeration to say that was his exclusive focus.† Another senior manager added: â€Å"He has certainly put an enabling culture in place to allow customer service to come out, where, rather than people waiting to be told what to do to do things better, its an environment where people feel they can actually come out with ideas, that they will be listened to, and feel they are much more a part of the success of the company.† Not just a strong verbal communicator, Marshall became an active role model in the terminals, spending time with staff during morning and evenings. He combined these actions with a nu mber of important events to drive home the customer service message. Corporate Celebrations, 1983-1987 If Marshall was the most important player in emphasizing customer service, then the Putting People First (PPF) program was the most important event. BA introduced PPF to the front-line staff in December of 1983 and continued it through June of 1984. Run by the Danish firm Time Manager International, each program cycle lasted two days and included 150 participants. The program was so warmly received that the non-front-line employees eventually asked to be included, and a one-day â€Å"PPF II† program facilitated the participation of all BA employees through June 1985. Approximately 40,000 BA employees went through the PPF programs. The program urged participants to examine their interactions with other people, including family, friends, and, by association, customers. Its acceptance and impact was extraordinary, due primarily to the honesty of its message, the excellence of its delivery, and the strong support of management. Employees agreed almost unanimously that the programs message was sincere and free from manipulation, due in some measure to the fact that BA separated itself from the programs design. The program emphasized positive relations with people in general, focusing in large part on non-work-related relationships. Implied in the positive relationship message was an emphasis on customer service, but the program was careful to aim for the benefit of employees as individuals first. Employees expressed their pleasure on being treated with respect and relief that change was on the horizon. As one frontline ticket agent veteran said: â€Å"I found it fascinating, very, very enjoyable. I thought it was very good for British Airways. It made people aware. I dont think people give enough thought to peoples reaction to each other. . . . It was hardhitting. It was made something really special. When you were there, you were treated extremely well. You were treated as a VIP, and people really enjoyed that. It was reverse roles, really, to the job we do.† A senior manager spoke of the confidence it promoted in the changes: â€Å"It was quite a revelation, and I thought it was absolutely wonderful. I couldnt believe BA had finally woken and realized where its bread was buttered. There were a lot of cynics at the time, but for people like myself it was really great to suddenly realize you were working for an airline that had the guts to change, and that its probabl y somewhere where you want to stay.† Although occasionally an employee felt uncomfortable with the â€Å"rah-rah† nature of the program, feeling it perhaps â€Å"too American,† in general, PPF managed to eliminate cynicism. The excellence in presentation helped signify a sincerity to the message. One senior manager expressed the consistency. â€Å"There was a match between the message and the delivery. You cant get away with saying putting people first is important, if in the process of delivering that message you dont put people first.† Employees were sent personal invitations, thousands were flown in from around the world, and a strong effort was made to prepare tasteful meals and treat everyone with respect. Just as important, BA released every employee for the program, and expected everyone to attend. Grade differences became irrelevant during PPF, as managers and staff members were treated equally and interacted freely. Moreover, a senior director came to conclude every single PPF session with a question and answer session. Colin Marshall himself frequently attended these closing sessions, answering employee concerns in a manner most felt to be extraordinarily frank. The commitment shown by management helped BA avoid the fate suffered by British Rail in its subsequent attempt at a similar program. The British Railway program suffered a limited budget, a lack of commitment by management and interest by staff, and a high degree of cynicism. Reports surfaced that employees felt the program was a public relations exercise for the outside world, rather than a learning experience for staff. About the time PPF concluded, in 1985, BA launched a program for managers only called, appropriately, Managing People First (MPF). A five-day residential program for 25 managers at a time, MPF stressed the importance of, among other topics, trust, leadership, vision, and feedback. On a smaller scale, MPF stirred up issues long neglected at BA. One senior manager of engineering summarized his experience: â€Å"It was almost as if I were touched on the head. . . . I dont think I even considered culture before MPF. Afterwards I began to think about what makes people tick. Why do people do what they do? Why do people come to work? Why do people do things for some people that they wont do for others?† Some participants claimed the course led them to put more emphasis on feedback. One reported initiating regular meetings with staff every two weeks, in contrast to before the program when he met with staff members only as problems arose. As Marshall and his team challenged the way people thought at BA, they also encouraged changes in more visible ways. In December 1984, BA unveiled its new fleet livery at Heathrow airport. Preparations for the show were carefully planned and elaborate. The plane was delivered to the hangar-turned-theater under secrecy of night, after which hired audio and video technicians put together a dramatic presentation. On the first night of the show, a darkened coach brought guests from an off-site hotel to an undisclosed part of the city and through a tunnel. The guests, including dignitaries, high-ranking travel executives, and trade union representatives, were left uninformed of their whereabouts. To their surprise, as the show began an aircraft moved through the fog and laser lights decorating the stage and turned, revealing the new look of the British Airways fleet. A similar presentation continued four times a day for eight weeks for all staff to see. On its heels, in May of 1985, British Airways unveiled its new uniforms, designed by Roland Klein. With new leadership, strong communication from the top, increased acceptance by the public, and a new physical image, few on the BA staff could deny in 1985 that his or her working life had turned a new leaf from its condition in 1980. Management attempted to maintain the momentum of its successful programs. Following PPF and MPF, it put on a fairly successful corporatewide program in 1985 called â€Å"A Day in the Life† and another less significant program in 1987 called â€Å"To Be the Best.† Inevitably, interest diminished and cynicism grew with successive programs. BA also implemented an â€Å"Awards for Excellence† program to encourage employee input. Colin Marshall regularly communicated to staff through video. While the programs enjoyed some success, not many employees felt â€Å"touched on the head† by any successor program to PPF and MPF.

Economic And Behavioural Theories In Compensation Economics Essay

Economic And Behavioural Theories In Compensation Economics Essay INTRODUCTION Wages are determined by both the supply and demand of particular type of labour. The factors which influence wages are supply, price, skill, experience, ability, reputation. The wages theories have important policy implications and applicable for some of the definite occupations or line of work, none of these is adequate as a general theory having universal applicability. The economic theories of wages fail to provide a complete explanation of the problem of wage determination. Studies conducted by behavioral scientists to some extent fill the gaps in the earlier theories, which have highlighted the importance of psychological and sociological factors on wages. The key issues developed by economic and behavioral theorists are briefly reviewed in this chapter. THEORIES OF COMPENSATION Compensation theories mainly divided into two parts: Economic theory Behavioral theory Economic theory consist the following and described as under: SUBSISTENCE THEORY (Given by DAVID RICARDO in 1772-1823) David Ricardo, in his famous book Principles of Political Economy and Taxation propounded the subsistence theory of wages: Ricardo states that the price of labour depends upon subsistence of labour. The theory was based on the assumption that if the workers were paid more than subsistence wage, their numbers of labour would increase as they would reproduce more; and this would bring low the rate of compensation. If the rate of compensation decreased below the subsistence level, the number of workers would reduced as many would die because of lack of food or hunger, increased inability due to scarcity of nutrition, abnormal health conditions, cold, etc. and many of them could not marry because they fell that they could not able to accept the responsibility . This will result in decreased labour supply, which will lastly be same like as the demand for it. Ricardo viewed that the market price of labour could not vary from the subsistence level for a long time. For this reason, the subs istence wage theory was also known as the Iron Law of Wages. THE SURPLUS VALUE THEORY (Given by KARL MARX in 1818-1883) This theory owes its development to Karl Marx. According to this theory, the labour was an article of trade, which could be purchased on payment of subsistence price. Marx in many ways is closer to Ricardo in his approach to the question of value for labour power. He accepted Ricardos view that the market price of labour power could not for long depart from the value of the subsistence which is required for the maintenance of that labour power. He, however, viewed that it was not the tendency of population, which brought wages to the subsistence level, but it was the tendency in the capitalist system to chronic unemployment and the existence of industrial reserve army, which drove wages to the subsistence level. Labour supply always cared for the excess of the demand for it of capitalist wage system. The capitalist was in a position to force the worker to spend more time of his job than what was necessary to earn his subsistence wage. Product price was set or fixed by the total time needed for generating the output by the labour. The price of any product was determined by the labour time needed for producing it. According to Marx, the labour did not receive complete remuneration for the time he spent on their work place or job. Marx, however, held the view that the introduction of trade union bargaining and similar interferences could stop the tendency of wages falling to their minimum level and even reverse it. THE WAGES FUND THEORY (Given by ADAM SMITH in 1723-1790) This theory was propounded by Adam Smith. His basic assumption was that wages are paid out of money which lay surplus with wealthy persons as a result of savings. It was the size of the fund, which determined the demand for labour and the wages paid to them. According to wages fund theory, wages are determined by: (a) the wage fund or part of working capital which has been increased for getting the labour work; and (b) the number of workers seeking employment. The wage fund was assumed to be fixed and it does not change. Any change in wage rate, because of increase or decrease in the size of labour getting job opportunity. The wages fund theory based on the productivity of labour and profitability of any organization it shows that increased in the savings increased in the wages, it may change after the fixed tenure. Increase in remuneration could help to increase the efficiency of labour, it would presumably augment the employers demand for that labour. Hence, a rise in wage level not only influences the supply conditions of labour but also causes a shift in the demand for labour. This is quite opposite to the assumption made by the theory that the demand for labour is fixed. THE MARGINAL PRODUCTIVITY THEORY (Given by J.B.CLARCK) This theory was propounded by Phillips Henry Wicksteed (England) and John Bates Clark (USA). According to this theory, compensation are based upon an entrepreneurs calculation of the rate that will probably be acquire by the marginal worker. The marginal productivity theory pretended that there was a certain quantity of worker received the job and the remuneration value at which this worker could secure employment in a competitive labour market was equal to the addition to total production that resulted from employing the marginal unit of that labour force. It was also pretended that production is carried out under the conditions of diminishing returns to labour. The principle of diminishing marginal productivity postulates that the contribution of each additional unit of labour would be less than that of the unit previously hired. Therefore, inspite of the fact that the productivity of the individual labourer may be higher than that of the marginal labourer, he will not be paid more than what the marginal labourer will get. In the short run wage rate can be both higher and lower than the marginal revenue productivity of labourers, but in the long run it gets equalised with the marginal revenue productivity of labourers. If the prevailing wage rate is lower than marginal productivity, it will be profitable for the employers and the resulting competition among employers to employ more workers will tend to raise the wages. On the contrary, if the prevailing wage rate is higher than the marginal productivity, the employment of marginal workers will yield him losses and he would stop employing them. This will result in competition among workers for jobs, which would lower the wages. Thus in the long run the equilibrium wage rate will become equal to the marginal revenue productivity of labour. The marginal productivity theory is considered superior to the earlier theories on wages. THE BARGAINING THEORY (Given by JOHN DAVIDESON) John Davidson propounded this theory. He argued that the wages and time period of work were ultimately defineds by the relative bargaining power between the employers and the employees. According to this theory, there is a top limit and a lower limit of compensation and the actual wage rates in between these limits are set or calculated by the bargaining power of the employers and the employees. The upper limit could be the highest wages that the employers would be willing to pay beyond which they will incur losses resulting from high labour costs. The lower limit could be either the minimum wages prescribed under the statute or the strength of the workers at the necessary remuneration below which they will not be ready for work. DEMAND AND SUPPLY THEORY (Given by MARSHALL) This theory is given by Marshall. He assumed the whole set of factors which govern demand for and supply of labour affected the determination of wages. It is therefore necessary to understand the various factors, which influence the demand for and supply of labour. The employers demand for labour is dependent on a number of factors such as the demand for his/her product, availability of other factors of production (the most important being the supply of capital), the level of technological progress, etc. The demand price of labour is determined by the marginal productivity of individual worker. Supply of manpower can be stated in a number of senses. First, it refers to the number of workers getting job and the workers with no alternative for survival, join the labour market for getting the job for wages. Secondly, it may be the number of hours or given time period for which each worker is ready for doing job. Finally, the supply of labour varies with the intensity of work. The supply of labour tends to increase if the workers work harder than before. Thus, Wage rates are influenced by a number of factors governing the demand for and supply of labour. The marginal productivity of labour, determines its demand price. It is the standard of living of workers that plays an important role in the determination of supply price of labour. The actual wage rate is determined at that level where the demand for and supply of labour are equal. In real world, however, labour markets are generally non-competitive. The wage levels expected to result from the free interaction of demand and supply are often modified by the resistance from workers to accept wages below the subsistence level; trade union action, government intervention in wage fixation, and immobility of workers. PURCHASING POWER THEORY (Given by PIGOUN) In the book General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money explained the concept of purchasing power. According to him, wage is not only the cost of production to the employer but also an income for the labour. The same workers and their families consume a major part of the products of the industry. Hence, if the earning of the labour is high they will have more consuming power, which would help to higher the aggregate demand for goods and also a high level of output. On the other hand, if the wage rates were low, their purchasing power would be less, which would bring about a decrease in the aggregate demand. This will have an adverse effect on the levels of employment and output. According to Keynes, unemployment and depression will further add to the problem. Therefore, a cut in wage national income falls; it would have an adverse effect on employment rate. According to the Keynesian Theory, fill employment is a function of national income; the higher the level of national income the greater the volume of employment and both income and employment are determined by effective demand. Hence, if the national income falls, it would have an adverse effect on employment. COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE THEORY Economists specializing in international trade argued about countries, industries and companies competing on the basis of comparative advantage of cheap labour Employers are known to move to areas where labour is cheap, be it within a country or across countries. Subject to internal and external constraints, labour also tends to show a tendency to move to areas, which pay higher value for their skills and effort. In recent years, however, there is pressure on countries and companies competing on the basis of cheap labour to ensure compliance with minimum core labour standards concerning minimum age, freedom of association, right to collective bargaining forced labour and non-discrimination. LIMITATIONS OF ECONOMIC THEORIES 1. According to Subsistence theory, the assumption that the supply of labour is perfectly elastic at the subsistence wage level is incorrect. The theory does not consider wage differentials, which are bound to exist across regions. 2. The subsistence theory ignores the importance of the role of the demand for labour and the role of trade unions in wage determination. 3. Economic theories either assume that wages and prices are either fully fixed or fully flexible. The reality lies somewhere in between. 4. Most wage theories are based on the assumption of full employment. In most developing countries this is not really the case. 5. Labour is not as mobile as capital and products are. Therefore wage rates could be influenced by the changes in the demand for and supply of factors other than labour too. 6. Wages and benefits reflect industry characteristics and personal characteristics (including skill differentials) as well as societal preferences and prejudices. 8. Interference by government and trade unions could minimize the influence of the market forces of demand and supply of labour. 9. Technology and productivity are major determinants. Low wages may not mean low wage costs. Similarly high wage rates may not mean high unit labour costs. 10. With the growing pressure for linking labour standards with international trade, increasingly it will become difficult (for countries, industries and companies) to compete on the basis of comparative advantage of cheap labour. BEHAVIOURAL THEORIES AND RELEVANT ISSUES Behavior means naturally reaction or movement to the environment and yourself. Motivation is the process of attempting to influence others to do your work will through the possibility of gain or reward. Remuneration of every worker has a behavioral objective and seeks to fulfill the survival need (physiological or psychological) to fulfill the goals. Luthans argues that `motivation is a process that starts with a physiological or psychological deficiency or need that activates behavior or a drive that is aimed at a goal. Compensation policy are targeted at rewarding manpower for their skill, talent, performance, effort, responsibility and working conditions and increase their morale for efficient performance. Behavioral theories are divided into three categories:- Content theories Process theories, and Contemporary theories CONTENT THEORIES The content theories explain what inspires manpower at their jobs. Maslow, Hergberg and Alderfer gives their significant contribution to content theories. These are as follows:- 1.HIERARCHY OF NEEDS: Abraham Maslow proposed the first theory called the hierarchy of needs theory. He proposed five needs of any people in needs hierarchy physiological or basic need (food, shelter, clothing), safety need (emotional and physical safety health insurance, pension), social need (affection and belongingness to society), Self-esteem need (power, achievement, status, etc.), and self- actualization (personal growth, realization of potential). Maslow believed that within every individual, there exists a hierarchy of five needs and each level of need must be satisfied before an individual pursues the next higher level of need. As an individual progresses trough the various levels of needs, the proceeding needs loose their motivational value. 2.TWO FACTOR THEORY OF MOTIVATION: Herzberg extended work of Maslow and developed a specific content theory of work motivation. Factors of this motivational theory divided into two categories: Intrinsic cand Extrinsic. Interinsic factors are the motivators (satisfiers) for the workforce and, Exterinsic factorsar the hygiene factors (dissatisfiers). Intrinsic remuneration are motivators or satisfiers work for satisfy workers related to job content. It includes success, identification, responsibility, work enrichment, and works enlargement. Extrinsic remuneration are hygiene factors and helps to reduce the dissatisfaction on the job. It includes company rules regulation and administration, supervision, co-ordination, salary structure, interpersonal relations, working environment 3.ERG THEORY: Clayton Alderfer identified 3 groups of core needs; they are- Existence, Relatedness and Growth. (a) The existence needs are concerned with survival. (b) The connected needs and the importance of interpersonal and social relationship. (c) The growth needs are concerned with individuals intrinsic desire for personal development. Based on a persons background and social environment, one set of needs may precede over others. The job of Maslow, Hergberg and Alderfer are related to content theories. They give useful theories but have limited implications for policy and practice. PROCESS THEORIES Process theories were examined by performance of Vroom (on valence and expectancy) and Porter and Lawer (performance-satisfaction linkage). They look at the related procedingss that go into motivation or effort, particularly the way they relate to one another. EXPECTANCY THEORY: Victor Vroom developed expectancy theory under process theory based on the abstract of valence, expectancy and instrumentality. Valence states to an individuals orientation for a individual result. For instance, most old employees perceives value benefits against fewer, if any, younger employee in todays knowledge industry, single (unmarried) workers with fewer family responsibility have less or no need for benefits like childrens education, health benefits, leave travel allowance etc. than older, married employees with one or more children. Instrumentality refers that a people would be inspired to give better performance in anticipation of promotion. Expectancy states that the degree of chances accor to a particular activity or process or effort will lead to particular first-level results on the other hand, Instrumentality states to the degree of chances that relates first-level results and desired second-level results. In simple words, Motivation is a -function of valence and expectancy. According to Vrooms concept it can be interpreted that: manpower gives to the organization what it needs from people, higher performance and in exchange they expect promotion. CONTEMPORARY THEORIES The contemporary theories describe the modern concept of how people motivates at work. These include Equity and Attribution theories. These are explained as follows:- 1. EQUITY THEORY J. Stacy Adams, developed by equity theory, and give their views that primary input on job performance and satisfaction on the basis of equity that people fells in their working conditions. Inequity comes in existence when a manpower feels that the ratio of his or her results to inputs and the ratio of a relevant others results to inputs are imbalanced. Equity can be stated in two elements. One is internal and other is external. Internal equity states that the imbalance in the remuneration between the several skills or talent and responsibility level among the various manpower. Internal equity is determined through job evaluation. External equity states that when remuneration levels for same skills levels in one organization compare with other workers in any different organization in same industry and geographical region. External equity is determined usually through compensation surveys or interview and compensation satisfaction surveys. Companies, which pay remuneration at lower rate than the market rates, would be in problem to attract, retain and inspire manpower to perform with full efficiency. Our manpower doesnt perceive happiness when they get lower remuneration than what they deserve. When an employee gets remuneration at higher rates than what he/she considers is fair. Now the question is that to check out what they are receiving, what they deserve and what is fair for our manpower to maintain balance or equity in compensation system. 2.ATTRIBUTION THEORY: This theory is contributed by Fritz Heider, Lewin and Festinger. They assume that people are rational and logical in their behavior and that both inter and outer forces get composed additively to conclude behaviour. People will behave differently if they realize that their results are controlled or supervised more internally than externally. This theory has great efficiency for understanding organizational behaviour and contributes deep insights on goal setting, leadership behaviour and diagnosing causal factors of employee performance. QUESTIONS:- 1. Explain the importance of the theory of wages. 2. What are the different types of theory of wages? Explain in detail. 3. Are wages determined only on the basis of the demand and supply of labour? 4. Explain the significance of behavioural theories in Wages determination? 5. What are the limitations that arise while wages determination in economic theories?

An Analysis of Grand Strategy :: essays research papers fc

An Analysis of Grand Strategy through the Lens of Neo-Security Complex Theory   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Barry Buzan, Ole Waever, and Jaap de Wilde attempt to structure a fundamentally new approach to the study of security issues by attempting to incorporate traditional notions of security analysis into a broader understanding of international security that incorporates non-military threats. Their neo-security complex theory does provide substantive insight into how the process of securitizing issues occurs and how one can address non-military existential threats within a security studies framework; however, there are some substantive problems that require greater theoretical precision in order to prevent making the securitizing process they describe nothing more than a residual category. Ultimately, Buzan, Waever, and de Wilde need to incorporate both temporal elements as well as and probability into their approach in order to disaggregate existential threats. Without such modifications, the existential threat posed by an incoming nuclear or chemical warhead is equi valent to increased levels of radon in the home.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In order to show the virtues, flaws, and possible improvements that would allow neo-security complex theory to become a more powerful analytic tool in security studies it is first necessary to briefly explicate the core elements of the approach and show how it diverges from the traditional understanding of security studies. Then one must show how its application would provide substantive insight into particular security practices found in the literature, such as grand strategy. After doing so, we must address substantive problems generated from the application of the theory and then show how various improvements would strengthen the neo-security project.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The neo-security complex theory revolves around an attempt to expand the possibilities of what constitutes a security threat by conceptualizing it as meaning solely a threat to one’s physical existence. While recognizing that there are many threats and vulnerabilities that arise both within and outside military issues, Buzan, Waever, and de Wilde argue that including all such events would ultimately prove the traditionalists’ critique that expanding security beyond military issues inevitably leads to a lack of coherence. The way out of this conceptual morass is to distinguish between political issues and construct security as pertaining to â€Å"existential threats to a referent object by a securitizing actor who thereby generates endorsement of emergency measures beyond rules that would otherwise bind.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Like neorealism, neo-security complex theory relies upon levels of analysis as a means to situate actors, issues that pose existential threats, and the interactions between them that constitute security. An Analysis of Grand Strategy :: essays research papers fc An Analysis of Grand Strategy through the Lens of Neo-Security Complex Theory   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Barry Buzan, Ole Waever, and Jaap de Wilde attempt to structure a fundamentally new approach to the study of security issues by attempting to incorporate traditional notions of security analysis into a broader understanding of international security that incorporates non-military threats. Their neo-security complex theory does provide substantive insight into how the process of securitizing issues occurs and how one can address non-military existential threats within a security studies framework; however, there are some substantive problems that require greater theoretical precision in order to prevent making the securitizing process they describe nothing more than a residual category. Ultimately, Buzan, Waever, and de Wilde need to incorporate both temporal elements as well as and probability into their approach in order to disaggregate existential threats. Without such modifications, the existential threat posed by an incoming nuclear or chemical warhead is equi valent to increased levels of radon in the home.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In order to show the virtues, flaws, and possible improvements that would allow neo-security complex theory to become a more powerful analytic tool in security studies it is first necessary to briefly explicate the core elements of the approach and show how it diverges from the traditional understanding of security studies. Then one must show how its application would provide substantive insight into particular security practices found in the literature, such as grand strategy. After doing so, we must address substantive problems generated from the application of the theory and then show how various improvements would strengthen the neo-security project.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The neo-security complex theory revolves around an attempt to expand the possibilities of what constitutes a security threat by conceptualizing it as meaning solely a threat to one’s physical existence. While recognizing that there are many threats and vulnerabilities that arise both within and outside military issues, Buzan, Waever, and de Wilde argue that including all such events would ultimately prove the traditionalists’ critique that expanding security beyond military issues inevitably leads to a lack of coherence. The way out of this conceptual morass is to distinguish between political issues and construct security as pertaining to â€Å"existential threats to a referent object by a securitizing actor who thereby generates endorsement of emergency measures beyond rules that would otherwise bind.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Like neorealism, neo-security complex theory relies upon levels of analysis as a means to situate actors, issues that pose existential threats, and the interactions between them that constitute security.

put it down :: essays research papers

put it down! The most hotly contested battlefield in the gender wars may not necessarily be in the bedroom. It may be the bathroom. The seat-up vs. seat-down debate rages on and some interpret this as a sign of male insensitivity and overall cloddishness. Although it doesn't rate up there with the unisex restroom in the Ally McBeal television show, the signage for the toilets at one Phoenix, Arizona advertising-public relations firm is an eye-catcher. Instead of the plain old "Men" and "Women" on the politically correct male and female door signs, the restrooms entries at Cramer-Krasselt are adorned with tasteful, nearly look-alike 3-inch square photos of a toilet. There is one difference -- one has the seat up and the other has the seat down. Is someone trying to tell us something? Come on, guys! Maybe it's time to be a little more considerate. Like paying attention to the little things. As a professional speaker, I lead seminars on personal relationships. In our discussions of "paying attention to the little things," taking the garbage out, leaving the toilet seat up and rolling the toilet paper the wrong way (among other things) seem to almost always creep into the conversation. Although we may laugh at such trivial things, the truth is, it is important to our partners to do the little things consistently. It shows them we value and respect them. Inventor, Tim Seniuk has the perfect solution to the "leaving the toilet seat up" problem. He has invented a toilet seat that goes down automatically after about two minutes. This $37 investment could save your marriage! You will never again have to worry about experiencing the "porcelain splash" in the middle of the night! ;-) Indifference is like water to a fire. The flame of love grows dim with indifference to your partner's needs. By far the most common and important way in which you can exercise your attention to your partner is by listening. Listening is an act of love. Women can often tell a man's interest in them by the length of his attention span. It is one thing to pay attention and quite another to acknowledge her request and then remember to do it more than once without having to be reminded. She is not your mother. It is unreasonable, and a breach of trust, to deny your lover's report of her feelings. When she expresses a need, it's your responsibility to do what you can to fulfil that need. put it down :: essays research papers put it down! The most hotly contested battlefield in the gender wars may not necessarily be in the bedroom. It may be the bathroom. The seat-up vs. seat-down debate rages on and some interpret this as a sign of male insensitivity and overall cloddishness. Although it doesn't rate up there with the unisex restroom in the Ally McBeal television show, the signage for the toilets at one Phoenix, Arizona advertising-public relations firm is an eye-catcher. Instead of the plain old "Men" and "Women" on the politically correct male and female door signs, the restrooms entries at Cramer-Krasselt are adorned with tasteful, nearly look-alike 3-inch square photos of a toilet. There is one difference -- one has the seat up and the other has the seat down. Is someone trying to tell us something? Come on, guys! Maybe it's time to be a little more considerate. Like paying attention to the little things. As a professional speaker, I lead seminars on personal relationships. In our discussions of "paying attention to the little things," taking the garbage out, leaving the toilet seat up and rolling the toilet paper the wrong way (among other things) seem to almost always creep into the conversation. Although we may laugh at such trivial things, the truth is, it is important to our partners to do the little things consistently. It shows them we value and respect them. Inventor, Tim Seniuk has the perfect solution to the "leaving the toilet seat up" problem. He has invented a toilet seat that goes down automatically after about two minutes. This $37 investment could save your marriage! You will never again have to worry about experiencing the "porcelain splash" in the middle of the night! ;-) Indifference is like water to a fire. The flame of love grows dim with indifference to your partner's needs. By far the most common and important way in which you can exercise your attention to your partner is by listening. Listening is an act of love. Women can often tell a man's interest in them by the length of his attention span. It is one thing to pay attention and quite another to acknowledge her request and then remember to do it more than once without having to be reminded. She is not your mother. It is unreasonable, and a breach of trust, to deny your lover's report of her feelings. When she expresses a need, it's your responsibility to do what you can to fulfil that need.

Sylvias Struggle in The Lesson by Toni Cade Bambara Essay -- Sylvia’s

Toni Cade Bambara’s "The Lesson" revolves around a young black girl’s struggle to come to terms with the role that economic injustice, and the larger social injustice that it constitutes, plays in her life. Sylvia, the story’s protagonist, initially is reluctant to acknowledge that she is a victim of poverty. Far from being oblivious of the disparity between the rich and the poor, however, one might say that on some subconscious level, she is in fact aware of the inequity that permeates society and which contributes to her inexorably disadvantaged economic situation. That she relates poverty to shame—"But I feel funny, shame. But what I got to be shamed about? Got as much right to go in as anybody" (Bambara 604)—offers an indication as to why she is so hard-pressed to concede her substandard socioeconomic standing in the larger scheme of things. Sylvia is forced to finally address the true state of her place in society, however, when she observes fi rsthand the stark contrast between the rich and the poor at a fancy toy store in Manhattan. Initially furious about the blinding disparity, her emotionally charged reaction ultimately culminates in her acceptance of the real state of things, and this acceptance in turn cultivates her resolve to take action against the socioeconomic inequality that verily afflicts her, ensuring that "ain’t nobody gonna beat me at nuthin" (606). "The Lesson" posits that far from being insurmountable, economic and social injustice can be risen above, but it is necessary that we first acknowledge the role that it plays in our lives, and then determine to take action against it; indifference, and the inaction that it breeds, can only serve to perpetuate such injustices. Sylvia’s languid regard for Miss Mo... ... The "unprecedented access to higher education and employment" (African American np) that African Americans have been party to since the Civil Rights Movement speaks strongly to the opportunities for change that this country affords its citizens. However, the value of the struggle cannot be lost on us. We must recognize that such fundamental change does not manifest itself overnight: it is achievable only where a lasting commitment to it is available. Change is not beyond us. Action, however, is its necessary predecessor. Works Cited Bambara, Toni, Cade. The Lesson. New York: The Continuum Publishing Corporation, 1972. Cartwright, Jerome. â€Å"Bambara’s ‘The Lesson.’ The Explicator 47.3 (Spring 1989): 61-64. Literature Resource Center. Web. 27 Nov. 2014. "African American" Web. 27 Nov. 2014. http://www.statemaster.com/encyclopedia/African_American

Changes to the American Empire During 1790 to 1850

American imperium alteration from the 1790s to the 1850s The unusual struggle that split American life in the 1790s concentrated on conflicting position of the significance of the American Revolution and the manner its tradition could be developed into a new province. The profound misinterpretation of the 1790s inspired the growing in American political relations. Throughout revolution patriots anticipated and demanded all people give the support because it was the lone manner for the public good. Many Americans held that was a individual place to travel on this political issue It was unfortunate for John Adams to be the president during these disruptive times. He was a existent nationalist and deeply principled. It was during his term of office that by 1798 he and Federalist Congress had enacted many Torahs that adversely chopped off Americans civil autonomies. To Adams political critics were faithless oppositions of good authorities where he intensified domestic dictatorship under the leading Congress leaders. In so making he was utilizing his ain party in chairing control and as a agency to work the chauvinistic enthusiasm to his ain advantage. The difference that alienates our perceptual experience from those of Adams and his Federalist companions in the late 1790s unmaskings basic revolution of American political idea The philosophical alterations that started by Gallic Revolution had immense effects in France and many European states. It helped to alter American political relations get downing from mid 1790s. It had in the beginning receive overpowering support in the United States but it subsequently lets to divergent positions in America because of radicalization in 1792-1793 America grew and changed from 1750-1850 in all domains i.e. politically socially and economically. In societal and cultural alteration, art changed which was started by Hudson River school motion. American painters for the first clip started their manner, for case Thomas Cole, who gave the American its individuality by switching off from England manner of picture and gave more concentration on landscaping. Literature on the other manus changed whereby authors started prosecuting themselves on American subjects. During this clip the indigens were ill treated by the foreigners. Foreigners introduced remotion policy which forced the Native American move from their hereditary lands. This act was propelled passing of the Removal Act in 1830.Cherokees in 1838 were forced to travel 100s of stat mis from their places to settle in West of the Mississippi river. This motion was referred to â€Å"trial of tears† . Economic alterations took topographic point which majorly affected how America made money, how people earned a life, engineering and trade. In transit changed how goods were ferried from one topographic point to another. This was enabled due to the debut steamboats, canal edifice. Farmers earned more money due to faster and cheaper transportation of green goods to the markets. Progresss in engineering i.e. in of the telegraph by Samuel Morris improved communicating at big since messages could make the receiver in proceedingss unlike months. Invention of whirling Jenny by James Hargreaves changed the fabric industry immensely. Factories emerged ; the first successful mill in the US was started by Moses and Samuel Slater. The Factory was made up of Millss which spin yam. Slater bought the cognition from England where he was working. This aided the sprout of successful mill in America. The British fabric factory engineering brought to the U.S was upgraded by Francis Cabot. He combined b oth the turning of yarn and the weaving of apparels in one mill. It was started in Lowell Massachusetts in 1821. A Boston associate was formed by Lowell and outstanding business communities to finance the factory. As mills grew interchangeable parts and industrial rebellion thought came up. Eli Whitney came up with the idea. The chief docket was to utilize the machine to develop all parts likewise, therefore salvaging clip and money in the industry. This aided the rapid growing of the industrial revolution. As money changed therefore the alterations in foreign policy besides took topographic point. America changed from thought of isolation to neutrality. The chief end was to merchandise with all states and acquiring involved in developing them. The president at that clip was Monroe. President Monroe due to his concern about European states colonising South America ; he made a bold statement warning them to remain off from Latin America. Due to weak military the policy was difficult to continue but the backup of England came in ready to hand. The statement by President Monroe aided to determine the foreign policy for many old ages. American’s belief of manifest Destiny brought approximately political alterations. The belief stated that U.S had the authorization and duty to spread out ocean to ocean. They achieved this through sign language pacts, annexing and purchasing of land from Latin Americans. The Louisiana Purchase made in 1803 by Thomas Jefferson is a good illustration. He used $ 15 million on 800,000 square stat mis belongings which was about twice size of the U.S. Jefferson decided to look for adventurers to map and analyze wildlife. This occupation was given to Lewis and Clerk. American exceptionalism is an enterprise that America is fundamentally different from other states. This point of view has dominated American economic sciences, political relations and faith for many old ages. Several early settlers proclaimed themselves to be an component of a exclusive venture with plentiful natural wealth, equity of society and faiths. It was non up to the rebellion that exceptionalism took on unfastened political intensions. The oratory of the current democratic government was often connected with expansionist pressing. This aligned foreign policy which stood on the strong belief that to spread out American democracy was reciprocally right and ineluctable. American exceptionalism changed as they enlargement took topographic point. United State and its citizen perceive that they hold the particular topographic point on Earth, by offering opportunity and outlook for world, ensuing from an exceeding sense of balance of public and private benefit governed by legitimate rules that focused on single and economic autonomy. A high spot in the yesteryear of American Exceptionalism is the American rebellion. The ideas that shaped the American rebellion were eventful from a usage of republicanism that has been affected by the British mainstream. Thomas Paine’s general logic for the first point in clip articulated the strong belief that America was non an enlargement of Europe except a new district, a province of about illimitable prospective and opening that had over shined the Britain. These sentiments lay the rational footing for the extremist perceptual experience of American exceptionalism and were strongly attached to republicanism, t he perceptual experience that rule belonged to the citizens, non to a catching opinion category. Alexis de Tocqueville insisted the advanced environment of democratic system in America, in difference that it infused each characteristic of society and traditions, at a minute ( 1830s ) when societal equality was non in tendency anyplace else.

From a Chinese Perspective

contemporary Art in mainland china unravels as a budding butterfly bulge of its cocoon. Years of militant ruling and the imposition of state-centered concepts made contemporary ruse terrestrial and stagnant. At the onset of planetaryization, new-fangled artists from China found more room to joggle as they begin to showcase their talents in a more matured Chinese setting. Un adequate to(p) to resist the pressures of globalization, Chinese novel art has slowly opened up to the challenge set by global competitors as it hones its craft into the local and conception-wide scene with a distinctive Chinese mark.This new found freedom has resulted in emboldening Chinese artists to meld different mediums and points of stack into their fine art, creating a time capsule that pays tourist court to the past and elucidates the future. Most of the mankind renowned Chinese artists much(prenominal) as Zhang Xiaogang, Zhang Huan, Ai Weiwei and Liu Xiaodong provoke made themselves visi ble because of their funny perspectives active Chinese life and I do non think that their germinal impact would have been grand if it did non involve a disturbing quality, specially a distorted one.The function of these artists was not merely to beautify the tedious environs of modern China but to beam its angle on Chinese floriculture, untied from the shackles of its restrictive past. In this respect, I cerebrate that the responsibility of the contemporary artist lies in creating ripples within their immediate environment. I to a fault deem that contemporary artists also have the hazard to make use of modern tools in order to produce an artwork that is relevant in todays society of technological advancement and multi paganism.I have had the prospect of visiting the Museum of coetaneous Art in Shanghai recently wherein the current theme was Couples in present-day(a) Art. It featured the artworks of 15 linked artists in celebration of their varied watch on gender and power dealings between sexes. The artworks exhibited the use of different materials and mediums such as acrylic on canvas, watercolor on marble, bronze and stainless brace sculptures, ceramic and mineral color on silk among some other things.I was specifically catch by the works of the couple subgenus Chen Xioadan and Yang Jianping as they used bones and silicon dioxide gel for their artworks. It was the first time I had ever seen an exhibition wherein couples were involved so it was very enkindle to see the polarities in their viewpoints. Another art showcase that I am very fond of is the selected paintings of Zhang Xiaogang in Charles Saatchis gallery. Although I have not been to London, I have seen some of his paintings online and in magazines and I study his artworks depict our cultural past in its barest form.His paintings merge Asian and European techniques through his use of surrealism and enactment akin get a lines of the Chinese family. These artworks incorporat e the aesthetics of traditional Chinese charcoal drawings, which en affirm off hues of grey, black and white. A affinity to old photo studio shots, it illustrates the unceasing link of the past to the present. The paintings demonstrate a timeless appeal that places emphasis on genealogical roots as severally character is a mirror image of another, distinguished only by reli fitted features or marks.The occasional interruption of such marks and colors indicate a focal viewpoint that Zhang had intended for the reviewer to ponder. The dream-like distortions of Zhangs paintings signify a entangled psychological dimension of Chinese culture in the past, as can be observed in the way the dead body comparets were portrayed such as characters with big heads and eyes and small arms. These invoke narrative readings about personality and a claustrophobic sense of self as images distort the cultured past.Learning about Zhangs artworks being patronized by people all over the world made me realize how China has matured in order to allow artists like Zhang to represent the country in the world of art. If it were not for globalization, many notional talents from China would still be bottled up in a trend of conformity. Outside influences has greatly affected the crafting of contemporary art in China, which has placed Chinese artists at par with their foreign counterparts.This is why I believe that being exposed to an environment where diversity of culture is encouraged and established among periodical interactions could bolster the creative identity of an artist. Constructing art and interpreting its parameters establishes a concrete popular opinion of the abstract realm. As an artist pursuit approval from his or her peers, I pretend that such activities that expand ones knowledge would also be culturally beneficial since I would be able to acculturate myself to the modern ways of western sandwich thinking and at the same time, communicate my Chinese heritage to the fellow artists that I come into contact with.I trust that the network of people that will wrap up my path would also be able to contribute in strengthening neighborly relations between the Chinese and the Americans. I believe that change is important for the result of an individual artist as that is how creative identity is isolated and constructed. It would be interesting to see and learn from the different viewpoints and techniques of other artists, as well as the opportunity to handle challenges found in a multicultural setting. Such experiences will for sure create an impression on my worldview as a Chinese and as a budding artist.